The islands of the Aegean Sea are diverse with herpetological species, from highly venomous vipers to the very rare Mediterranean Common Chameleon. Reptiles and amphibians are key species and they can be used as indicators of habitat change. The research efforts of Archipelagos focus on understanding their populations and the influence they have on their habitat. Alongside this actions are carried out to aid in their conservation and guarantee their continual survival.
 

Archipelagos’ herpetological research focuses on the islands of Samos and Ikaria which support populations of 4 amphibians, 13 snakes, 10 lizards, three tortoises and a freshwater terrapin species. Despite the fact that many of these species are protected, their protection largely exists only on paper, with their populations still suffering from many anthropogenic impacts this frequently creates cause for great concern.
 

Reptiles or reptilia are characterized as air breathing poikilotherms with amniotic eggs and either scales or scutes. The class inhabit all continents apart from Antarctica and are made up of approximately 8400 species that are split into four separate groups. These are Squamata (Snakes and Lizards), Testudines (Tortoise and turtles), as well as Crocodilia (crocodiles and alligators), and Sphenodontia (tuatara). Most are either tetrapods or have evolved from tetrapods.
 

In the Aegean we have populations of Squamata and Testudines. Both groups are very varied with Testudinae having both marine and terrestrial species within the region. Testudinae comprise of 3 marine species in the Aegean and 4 main species on the islands. They are categorised by there cartilaginous bony shell around there body that has evolved from there ribs. Testudinae are a vulnerable order as they are highly prized in the pet trade and with there slow growth rate to sexual maturity populations dwindle.
 

Squamata are the largest group consisting of snakes and lizard. The orders are distinguished by their skin which comprises of horny scales or shields. They also possess movable quadrate bones, these allow for the upper jaw to move without moving the braincase. Squamata are very varied in size from 16mm to 8m for the Green Anaconda (Eunectes murinus). Some Squamata species have evolved to be viviparous either retaining there eggs or birth without a calcified egg.

Common Species
 

The Aegean is very abundant with reptilian species many vulnerable to human threats. Below are some of the common species and some of the more vulnerable species found on the Aegean islands.

Lacerta anatolica oetzeni is a sub species of Lacertidae found only on Ikaria. It is a sub species of L. anatolica which can be found on Samos. This small lizard inhabits rocky outcrops and dry areas all over the island. When they are juveniles they have a bright blue tail and a black body with yellow spots. The blue colouring disappears with age and the yellow spots fade to reveal a striated dark pattern with lighter stripes. The species is insectivorous and grows up to approximately 20-25cm.
 

Montivipera xanthina (Ottoman Viper) is the only viper on the islands and the most poisonous snake in Europe. This species is rarely seen round humans. It is usually found in humid areas that are well vegetated and can be found up to altitudes of 2000 to 2500m above sea level. Its full distribution covers North Africa, the Middle East and South East Europe. It is a highly polymorphic species meaning that identification can sometimes be tricky. The morph found on the islands is one of the larger morphs with a black and grey pattern distinct from any other snakes on the two islands. The species grows to a maximum size of 1.3m. It usually predates on small lizards and mammals, The species use a procoagulant heamorrhagin mix venom and due to its large size for a viper has a serious bite.
 

Dolichophis caspius, the Caspian Whipsnake is the longest snake on the islands growing up to two metres long. Its distribution includes the Balkans and parts of Eastern Europe with some populations in Asia Minor. It is a thick bodied snake with a small head. It is a colubridae species with no venom. The species has distinct markings when juvenile but these fade when mature and it is a dark brown with a light yellow to white on its ventral side.
 

Eryx jaculus turcicus (Turkish Sand Boa) is one of the more common subspecies of sand boa. This species can grow between 40 and 60cm long. It is found in arid sandy areas mainly round the coast and feeds on small lizards and mammals. The species has a dark brown colouration with lighter yellow lines. The head is small compared to the body with an upturned sharp nose.
 

Laudakia stellio (Starred Agama) is a species seen commonly clinging onto rocks and basking on walls. This species has very characteristic markings which form star like shapes along the middle of their backs. They can attain a total length of 20 to 30 cm from snout to tail tip and their tails are roughly the same length as the body. They have a flattened short body, and no dorsal crest. The neck is well defined and they have a triangular shaped head. They are dark coloured with a few bluish scales, and light brown spots in the dorsal area. They can change colour very quickly from dark brown to light brown and grey. They are usually solitary animals but if density of species in an area is quite high they often form pairs. Their well-developed claws make them very efficient climbers on both trees and rocks. Males are territorial and during breeding season they will defend their territory aggressively. This species usually feeds on ants and any succulent vegetation. They can be found in Southeast Asia, North Africa, Aegean islands, Turkey and southeast Europe.
 

The Ophisaurus apodus (European Glass Lizard) is a limbless species of lizard, and looks similar to a snake. However unlike snakes it has holes on each side of the head, which are its ears, which distinguish it from snakes. The species also has a ventral grove which also distinguishes it from snakes. The species can grow up to 1.4 metres long with half of this comprising of the tail.
Ophisaurus apodus occupy habitats in arid areas such as rocky outcrops and forestry. They are known to live close to villages and towns due to the high proportion of food in these areas such as small mammals and lizards as well as large invertebrates such as snails.
The European Glass Lizard is a diurnal species of lizard, and is most active at dusk and dawn. In hot weather it will avoid the midday sun, and is found to be very active after rainfall.
The species mate in April/May, resulting in 10 eggs being laid in August. The hatchlings measure around 10 to 12 cm when they first appear.
It is found in the Balkans, with the most northern populations being found in Croatia, as well as Greece, Bulgaria, Former Yugoslavian Republic Of Macedonia and Crimea. It also occurs on some islands in the Aegean Sea, such as Samos, Kos, Lesvos, Rhodes and Thasos.
 

Testudo graeca is named the Spur Thighed Tortoise for the obvious spurs on its thighs. It has a carapace length of up to 25 cm in adults with the shell rarely being lumpy. Typically a single supracaudal plate is found above the tail, coarser scaling is often found on the front of the fore-legs, each foot has five claws and there is no large scale on the tail tip.
The Spur Thighed Tortoise is one of approximately eight species in the Genus Testudo; T. hermanni, Hermann’s Tortoise, and T. marginata, Marginated Tortoise, are the only species found within Europe.
They are often found in fairly dry grassland and scrub, sand dunes and open woods, including their edge. They can occur up to 1,300 m in Eastern Europe.
In breeding season, the spur thighed tortoise can move considerable distances. Mating usually occurs in spring and autumn; females will lay one to four clutches, each containing one to seven eggs, although usually three or four eggs on average. It takes the male approximately seven to eight years to reach sexual maturity and the female nine to ten years. Eggs will take around two and a half to four months to hatch and the babies will have a carapace length of 3 to 3.5 cm .
The spur thighed tortoise is found in southern Spain, Balkans, Turkey, north-eastern Greece, Majorca, south France, Sicily, Italy, Sardinia, north Africa, Asia Minor and the Middle East to Iran. Often these localities are the result of introductions and breeding colonies will not be established.
It is mainly herbivorous and feeds on a variety of herbaceous plants and grasses across its range, although, tortoises will still eat a variety of carrion, faeces and invertebrates.
It is classed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List of 2009 and is protected by Appendix II CITIES IV.
 

Chameleons are a specialized group of lizards belonging to the family Chamaeleonidae. There are approximately 130 species, which are distributed throughout the world, but most notably in Africa, Asia, and Madagascar, as well as a few species that are found in the Mediterranean.


The Mediterranean or Common Chameleon (Chamaeleo chamaeleon) has the widest distribution of all the chameleon species in the world, and can be found in Northern Africa, the Middle East and Spain, Portugal and Greece. However, in Greece it is currently endemic to the island of Samos, eastern Aegean Sea. Populations once existed in several other parts of Greece. It has only been in the last 20 years that they have disappeared from other islands, such as Chios and Crete. With this in mind, it is essential that awareness is raised of the importance of protecting this species on Samos, before this species goes extinct from Greece. According to historical data obtained from questionnaire based surveys carried out by Archipelagos, the population in Samos has reduced significantly during the past couple of decades, due to a number of threats. This shows the need for immediate application of management measures.
 

Characteristics
 

Chameleons are one of the most easily identified members of the lizard family, and this is not just due to their ability to change colour. There are a number of bodily characteristics that make them stand out from other lizard species, such as:
 

• Zygodactylous foot structure, which is similar to that found in birds. This allows the chameleon to grasp onto narrow branches, and aids their movement within the trees.
• Prehensile tail, which acts as a 5th limb and can grasp onto branches. The common chameleon moves in a slow and deliberate manner, which is a ruse to convince potential predators that it is just a leaf blowing in the wind.
• Large turreted eyes, as their eyelids are fused together. They are able to move their eyes independently of each other, which allow them to focus on 2 different fields of view. When a prey item is located, the chameleon is able to switch to binocular vision in order to target the insect better.
• Chameleons use their tongue as the predominant method for catching prey. It is protruded in a ballistic fashion so quickly that human’s eyes cannot focus on it. It can also extend up to twice the length of their body

Habitat & Diet

The common chameleon is an arboreal (tree-dwelling) species, and can mostly be found in riverine vegetation, olive groves and vineyards. During mating season it can be found on the ground in order to search for potential mates. C. chamaeleon’s diet mainly consists of arthropods, such as beetles, ants, bees and flies. They are an oviparous species of lizards. Egg-laying is most common in the month of October, after the mating season which runs from mid-July until mid-September. Females lay a single clutch of eggs a year, with up to 40 eggs being deposited at a time. After a 10 month incubation period, the hatchlings dig themselves out of their nest chamber, and their life as an arboreal lizard species commences.

Camouflage

Chameleons are notorious for their ability to blend into the background. Colour change can be driven by either the need to communicate with other chameleons, or as a defence mechanism from predators.

Conservation and Threats

The species is protected under Appendix II of CITES, as well as Appendix IV of the European Habitats Directive and Appendix II of BERN Convention. However because the species has no protection on the island the species is being taken by the pet trade through ports on the island. (link to threats)
 

Amphibians are one of the earliest groups of vertebrates and are thought to have evolved from lobe-finned, bony fish. The class Amphibia includes the orders Anura, Caudata and Gymnophiona. Frogs and toads are Anurans, while the salamanders and newts belong to the order Cuadata. The lesser known caecilians (the limbless amphibians) belong to Gymnophiona. The term amphibian is derived from the Ancient Greek word "amphíbios", which means both kinds of life. This refers to the fact that most amphibians first live and breathe in the water and then metamorphose into land-dwelling, air-breathing animals. With the exception of the caecilians, these are all found throughout the Aegean islands (click here to see common species).


Amphibians are characterised by having four limbs, which have evolved from the lobe fins of their ancestral fish. They are covered by a permeable, glandular skin, which is lacking in obvious scales unlike their close relatives, the reptiles. Like the reptiles, amphibians shed their skin on a number of occasions throughout the year, with some species eating the shed skin in order to replace some of the energy lost during this process. During metamorphosis, the gills are lost and replaced by lungs, in order to breathe air. The eyes also form eye lids and become adapted to a non-aquatic environment. With the exception of the frogs and toads, the tail is retained from the larvae into the adult form. Most amphibians lay eggs that have a gelatinous coating on them in freshwater habitats. Some species can survive in brackish water, but there are no true marine amphibian species.


Their internal temperature is governed by the surrounding water or air temperature, when the temperature is hot, they bask and raise their internal temperature. However, when the temperature is cold, they have reduced activity and may be forced to go into hibernation (depending on localised temperatures). Due to so little energy being used to regulate their temperature, amphibians can survive on a minimal amount of food.

Common Amphibians of the Aegean Islands

Bufo bufo (the European Common Toad) is widespread across Europe. It can be greyish-white, grey, brown or olive-brown with dark spots. Males are generally five to six centimetres long, while females are often eight to nine centimetres. B. bufo is known for its warty skin, which secretes toxins to deter most predators. However a few animals – including Grass Snakes and hedgehogs – will eat toads despite the toxins.
This species hibernates during the winter, starting in September or early November and ending in April or May. The toads reproduce anytime between March and June, and one female produces around 1,500 eggs. The new generation of toads takes 1.5-2.5 months to develop from tadpoles. Bufo bufo take two to three years to reach sexual maturity and can live over 50 years in captivity.
Bufe bufo live in forests, preferably conifer forests with marshes. However, the Common Toad will live in any wet environment that has dense vegetation, including parks and gardens. The toads spawn in any relatively clear body of water.
Common Toads feed on a broad variety of small prey, including insects, spiders, earthworms, snails and slugs. They are popular with gardeners since they consume so many pests.

Pseudepidalea viridis (The Green Toad)- This species is grey or olive with green spots and a grey belly. The toad is 4.8-12 cm long, and males are slightly smaller than females. P. viridis resembles the Natterjack Toad, Bufo calamita, but the Green Toad’s coloration is much more contrasted.
The life cycle of Pseudepidalea viridis varies geographically. The longest reproductive period (170 days) and shortest development before metamorphosis (21-25 days) occur in the southernmost parts of its range. Green Toads spawn in many kinds of fresh or salty water bodies, such as swamps, reservoirs, and river pools, although usually not deeper than 50 cm. Pseudepidalea viridis lives up to seven to 10 years.
Green Toads are well known for their ability to live almost anywhere. They are found in forests, steppes, and desert, and can thrive in very wet conditions (such as a swamp) or dry weather found in arid environments. Pseudepidalea viridis is also unusually content living in modified habitats, including cities and gardens.
Adult Green Toads eat mostly crawling invertebrates, such as spiders, ants and beetles. Tadpoles, which spend most of their time in the water, consume detritus and algae.
Pseudepidalea viridis is classified as a “species of least concern” by IUCN due to its wide distribution, ability to thrive in many different habitats, and its large population that is declining very slowly. The species is also listed under Appendix II of the Berne Convention.

 

Pelophylax bedriagae (The Levantine Frog) This species is green or brown covered in large dark spots. These frogs have pointed snouts, dark throats and sometimes a narrow yellow stripe down their backs. Females can be up to 10 cm, while males only reach a maximum of eight centimetres.
Pelophylax bedriagae spends most of its time in water, and prefers living in permanent wetlands such as ponds, rivers, and marshes. It can also be found in terrestrial environments with permanent water sources nearby. Pelophylax bedriagae is able to tolerate modified habitats, organic pollutants and tributaries from hot mineral springs.
Levantine Frogs are most common in the Eastern Mediterranean, including Turkey, the Greek islands, and Cyprus. They are also found in the Middle East. It is possible that these frogs actually have a much larger range, but this has not yet been confirmed by taxonomists.

 

Hyla arborea (The European Tree Frog) has smooth skin on its back that can be green, grey, brown or almost black depending on the colour and temperature of the surface the frog is sitting on. The underside of these frogs is white or yellowish. Male European Tree Frogs have a large protruding vocal sac.
After coming out of hibernation, the European Tree Frog usually reproduces between April and May. Larvae metamorphose anytime from June to September, although in some locations they do not finish transformation until after the winter. Juvaniles initially stay on the shore in grass and small bushes until fully developed.
The European Tree Frog lives on land, preferably in well-illuminated areas with broad-leafed plants. These frogs are commonly found in forests, gardens, parks, and stream banks. However, they can also tolerate modified habitats (including cities) and dry environments. European Tree Frogs spawn in stagnant waters such as lakes, swamps, or reservoirs. This is a lowland species that does not live at high altitude.
Adult European Tree Frogs mostly consume insects, even fast-flying ones that require long leaps to catch. They forage on land except in the breeding season, when adults look for food near the shore and on aquatic plants above the water surface.
 

On the islands of the Aegean there are threats that have been dealt on by humans for many year towards reptiles and amphibians. In many situations this has made some reptiles and amphibians extinct on certain islands in the Aegean examples of this are Chios and Crete where the Chameleon was lost in the 1980’s. All these threats towards all the herpetological fauna are all human causes. These main threats include:

• Road Mortalities

Many reptiles and amphibians are killed each year due to road accidents. As they travel over roads in order to find new territories, prey or mates, they face a higher risk of being killed, especially slow moving species like the chameleon. Many cars do not see them in time, or it is not safe to brake for them without causing accidents.

• Conventional Farming Practices

Pesticides are commonly used throughout Greece on farmed crops, and unfortunately extensive pesticide and herbicide use is a common practice. In conventional practices toxic chemical pesticides are sprayed on crops in order to stop pests, such as insects, fungus and bacteria, from eating and damaging the crops. Herbicides are sprayed to intentionally kill grasses so the farmers do not have to mow the grass down. In many island and mainland regions, there is an overuse of these harmful chemicals.
The addition of these toxic chemical compounds into habitat can be detrimental to reptiles and amphibians for a number of reasons. Chemicals in herbicides such as isopropylamine salt of glyphosate and polyethoxylated tallow amine (PTA) have affects on population sizes of lizards and amphibians. PTA in studies has killed high percentages of adults and larvae of amphibians in lab tests. Other affects of these chemicals can cause problems with growth and deformation of some species of reptile and amphibians. Extensive use of more chemical based pesticides could build up to an extent of loss of species of some amphibians and reptiles that are key predators and prey for many other animals on the island.

 

• Smuggling for Pet Trade

A major cause of concern, especially for species such as the Mediterreanen Chameleon, the Starred Agama and Balkan Terrapin is their capturing and selling as pets. One of the most affected species is the Mediterranean Chameleon. This species is protected under CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species) Appendix II, as well the European Habitats Directive, the Greek Red Data Book of Threatened Vertebrates. However, even with these protective measures in place, it seems that monitoring of smuggling is inefficient. Populations of this species are taken out of there habitats each year to be traded as pets. The trading needs to be stopped earlier than the ports with locals helping protect the species communicating sightings of suspected trafficking to the proper authorities. Individuals have been found smuggled through ports and many locals know of this practice but don’t mention it as they don’t know the species is protected.
To combat this threat Archipelagos feels the solution to this problem, especially with regards to the smuggling of the Mediterranean Common Chameleon in Samos is the initiation of an awareness campaign collaborating with the local authorities, in order to advertise the fact that the locals need to raise the alarm in the situations where they know smuggling is happening.

• Land Use

Due to the overall increase in tourism throughout the Aegean there is need for more buildings for accommodation in low lying areas close to the sea. Unfortunately this area is also where many species of amphibian and reptile inhabit. Land use change cuts down the habitat for populations in turn cutting down the population. Areas of wetland in some sites are being dried up for use of the land. This again cuts down on wetland habitats where other species thrive. This threat is much smaller than other parts of the world.